Libya

National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan

Northern AfricaApplies 2023–2030Source: National Strategy and Action Plan for Biodiversity 2023–2030

1. Overview

Libya's National Strategy and Action Plan for Biodiversity 2023–2030 was developed by the Ministry of Environment (Department of Natural Conservation) in response to CBD decision CBD/COP/15/6, adopted at COP15 in December 2022, which called on parties to update their NBSAPs in alignment with the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework [§7]. The document is organised in three chapters: national biodiversity background, an assessment of pressures on biodiversity, and the strategy and action plan.

The strategy sets twenty national commitments* organised under three thematic areas — Reducing Biodiversity Loss (Targets 1–8), Sustainable Use of Biodiversity (Targets 9–13), and Implementing, Mainstreaming, and Evaluating the Strategy (Targets 14–20). All twenty commitments carry a 2030 deadline, with Target 1 targeted for 2027. The commitments map across all 23 GBF Targets; the NBSAP does not address the four long-term 2050 GBF Goals (A–D).

*Libya's NBSAP uses "strategic target" and "national target" interchangeably for its 20 headline pledges. This page uses "national commitment" to avoid confusion with the 23 GBF Targets.

The strategy covers terrestrial, marine, and freshwater ecosystems across Libya's 1,750,000 km² territory and 1,952 km Mediterranean coastline. It defines implementation responsibilities, timeframes, and costed budgets for each commitment, and proposes an evaluation methodology with formal milestones in 2026 and 2030.

Libya's 2023–2030 NBSAP commits to expanding its protected area network from a 0.16% baseline to 30% of national territory, a goal grounded in a single-month declaration wave in December 2021 that added more than 30 new sites. The action plan carries a total budgeted investment of USD 454.5 million — with no confirmed funding sources identified — including USD 150 million for air and water quality, the largest single target allocation. The strategy explicitly names post-2011 governance collapse as a driver of biodiversity loss and lists the National Oil Corporation as a responsible body for mainstreaming, incentive reform, and sustainable production targets.

Sources:

§7 — Executive Summary

2. Ecological Context

Libya's territory divides into three topographic ranges: coastal plains (Benghazi, Sirte, Misrata, and Jafara); northern highlands including the Green Mountain (Jabal Akhdar) and Nafusa Mountain; and a vast desert interior encompassing the Hamada al-Hamra plateau, the Idhan Ubari and Idhan Murzuq sand seas, and mountain ranges including Tibesti (highest point Pico Petit at 2,266 m) and Jabal al-Owainat [§10]. Deserts and semi-deserts cover approximately 85–90% of the country [§10]. The coastal strip, ranging 5–25 km in width, contains the majority of economic activity and more than half the population [§14].

The Green Mountain, receiving up to 600 mm of rainfall annually, is the country's primary biodiversity refuge — containing 75–80% of Libya's approximately 2,118 recorded plant species despite constituting only 1% of national territory [§31]. Overall endemism is low (approximately 7%), with 80–81 endemic plant species distributed across four centres; two plant genera (Pachyctenium and Libyella) are endemic to the Green Mountain, each comprising a single species [§31]. Among 13 globally threatened mammal species recorded in the country, four are critically endangered — the Mediterranean monk seal (Monachus monachus), dama gazelle (Gazella dama), addax (Addax nasomaculatus), and Grobben's gerbil (Gerbillus grobbeni) — and the scimitar-horned oryx (Oryx dammah) is recorded as extinct in the wild [§32]. Loggerhead sea turtle nesting is documented at densities reaching 10.1 ±5.1 nests/km on Gulf of Sirte beaches, with Misrata beaches showing a decline from 5.9 nesting trails/km in 2007 to less than 0.1 trails/km in 2018 [§22].

Three pressures are of particular severity. Libyan rangelands cover approximately 13.3 million hectares but carry nearly 7.5 million grazing animals against an estimated carrying capacity of 2.5 million — roughly three times the sustainable threshold [§74]. In the marine environment, the NBSAP states that since 2011, "the absence of government due to political conflicts has led to neglect in guarding territorial waters, allowing foreign fishing vessels with advanced fishing techniques to enter," adversely affecting fish stocks and biodiversity [§76]; since 2013, marine survey coverage has decreased "due to the general security situation, conflicts and wars in some areas of Libyan territory" [§23]. Water scarcity is a structural constraint: renewable inland water resources yield only 111.5 m³/year per capita [§7] — well below the absolute scarcity threshold of 500 m³/year — and all coastal wastewater treatment plants are described as non-operational.

Agriculture's contribution to GDP declined to approximately 2.83% between 2000 and 2018 following the 1960s oil boom, with over 75% of food currently imported [§7]. Oil constitutes approximately 94% of national resources, with Libya holding Africa's largest proven oil reserves [§7]. This economic structure shapes the NBSAP's finance and mainstreaming architecture, reflected in the explicit inclusion of the National Oil Corporation as an implementation partner across multiple targets.

Sources:

§7 — Executive Summary
§10 — Chapter One > III. Topography
§14 — Chapter One > VI. State of Libya ecosystems > 1) Marine and coastal ecosystem
§22 — VIII. Sea Turtles
§23 — Aquatic Birds
§31 — VIII. Nature reserves > 2) Important Plant Areas in Libya
§32 — VIII. Nature reserves > 3) Animal biodiversity
§74 — Chapter Two > VI. Rangelands
§76 — Chapter Two > 1) Degradation and Fragmentation of Ecosystems

3. National Commitments and GBF Alignment

Libya's twenty national commitments are organised across three thematic areas. Eight commitments are measurable commitments carrying quantitative thresholds and 2030 deadlines (Targets 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 10, 16, and 18); the remaining twelve are directional aspirations specifying intent and scope without quantitative thresholds. No indicators are defined in the strategy; their development through stakeholder consultation is identified as a prerequisite step [§103].

Theme I: Reducing Biodiversity Loss (Targets 1–8)

National Commitment 1 — Spatial planning for biodiversity maps to GBF Target 1. The commitment reads: "By 2027, integrated spatial planning for biodiversity (terrestrial and marine) is integrated into national efforts to regulate the use of state land and territorial waters to ensure the retention of existing healthy land and marine areas" [§97]. Delivery involves establishing a joint Ministry of Planning–Ministry of Environment unit for spatial planning and remote sensing, at a cost of USD 2.5 million [§98]. Directional aspiration — no quantitative threshold; process-oriented.

National Commitment 2 — Ecosystem assessment and restoration maps to GBF Target 2. The commitment states: "By 2030, a full assessment of Libya's ecosystems (terrestrial, marine, and freshwater) is carried out, and 20% of degraded ecosystems are restored" [§97]. Implementation is led by the Ministry of Environment with the Ministries of Agriculture and Planning and the General Authority for Scientific Research, at a cost of USD 40 million [§98]. Measurable commitment — 20% restoration threshold, 2030 deadline; baseline definition for "degraded" is not established in the NBSAP.

National Commitment 3 — Protected area expansion maps to GBF Target 3. The commitment states: "By 2030, expand the existing network of national protected areas to cover 30% of Libyan territory, focusing on areas important for biodiversity, implement mechanisms to ensure effective management of the protected area network (terrestrial and marine), link them with areas under other effective conservation measures, and mainstream them into the wider terrestrial and seascape" [§97]. The baseline is 11 reserves covering approximately 0.16% of national territory as of 2010; the December 2021 declaration wave substantially expanded the system (see section below). Implementation is led by the Ministry of Environment at a cost of USD 20 million, including a new reserves law, management plans for 15 existing reserves, and infrastructure development [§98]. Measurable commitment — 30% coverage threshold, 2030 deadline, baseline documented.

National Commitment 4 — Species conservation maps to GBF Target 4. The commitment states: "By 2030, develop and implement actions to manage and conserve wild species biodiversity — especially endemic, endangered, and migratory species — within and outside the reserve network, and restore degraded species through sectoral or site-related plans" [§97]. The action plan schedules national Red List preparation for endemic species (by 2025), plant species (by 2027), and animal species (by 2028), and establishes a gene bank for genetic origins, genetic maps, and digital-genomic sequencing, at a total cost of USD 25 million [§98]. Directional aspiration — no quantitative threshold; specifies intent and scope.

National Commitment 5 — Sustainable harvest framework maps to GBF Target 5. The commitment reads: "By 2030, identify and implement an effective and universally recognised national framework for harvesting, sustainable use, and trade in wild species to ensure human health" [§97]. Implementation includes a national strategy, enforcement capacity building, and a monitoring programme, at a cost of USD 5 million [§98]. Directional aspiration — no quantitative threshold; specifies process outcome.

National Commitment 6 — Invasive alien species maps to GBF Target 6. The commitment states: "By 2030, reduce the rate of introduction of alien and invasive species by 50%, with national programmes to monitor, manage, combat, and eliminate spread pathways, focusing on priority species within the protected area network" [§97]. Implementation includes a national invasive species strategy, a national priority species list, early warning systems, and a specialised management unit within the Ministry of Environment, at a cost of USD 6 million [§98]. Measurable commitment — 50% rate reduction threshold, 2030 deadline; baseline introduction rate is not established in the NBSAP.

National Commitment 7 — Pollution reduction maps to GBF Target 7. The commitment states: "By 2030, reduce pollution (terrestrial and marine) from all sources, targeting a 50% reduction in organic nutrient pollution, a 60% reduction in pesticides, and complete elimination of plastic waste dumping in terrestrial and marine environments" [§97]. A separate USD 8 million allocation funds pollution reduction directly [§98]; delivery mechanisms are implemented primarily under National Commitment 11 (USD 150 million for air and water quality), which includes real-time monitoring stations, industrial emissions guidelines, wastewater treatment improvements, and agricultural water demand reduction. Measurable commitment — three distinct quantified thresholds (50% nutrients, 60% pesticides, complete elimination of plastic dumping), 2030 deadline.

National Commitment 8 — Climate and biodiversity maps to GBF Target 8. The commitment states: "By 2030, reduce the impacts of climate change on biodiversity by 25% through programmes applying nature-based solutions and contributing to climate change mitigation and adaptation" [§97]. Implementation includes nature-based solutions programmes, agricultural policy review, rural community adaptation, and educational curricula changes, at a cost of USD 75 million [§98]. Measurable commitment — 25% impact reduction threshold; the metric for quantifying "impacts of climate change on biodiversity" is not defined in the NBSAP.

Theme II: Sustainable Use of Biodiversity (Targets 9–13)

National Commitment 9 — Wild species sustainable use maps to GBF Target 9. The commitment reads: "By 2030, sustainable management of terrestrial, marine, and aquatic species to achieve food security and livelihoods, especially for communities and the poorest" [§97]. The context includes rangelands carrying nearly 7.5 million grazing animals against an estimated capacity of 2.5 million [§74]. Directional aspiration — no quantitative threshold; specifies aim and beneficiaries.

National Commitment 10 — Sustainable agriculture and aquaculture maps to GBF Target 10. The commitment states: "By 2030, achieve sustainable farming methods for 40% of existing agricultural and forested areas, and sustainable aquaculture methods for 50%, to support resilience to climate change impacts" [§97]. Six implementation priorities include forest digitalisation and inventory, guidelines on sustainable forest use, an agricultural biodiversity database, a Red List of Economic Plants and Domesticated Animals, a research programme for conservation of wild relatives of local agricultural species, and a solar energy programme for the agricultural sector, at a cost of USD 15 million [§100]. Measurable commitment — two quantified thresholds (40% agriculture/forestry, 50% aquaculture), 2030 deadline.

National Commitment 11 — Air and water quality maps to GBF Target 11. The commitment states: "By 2030, identify and implement plans and tools to protect air and water quality, with rapid response programmes for disaster risks and natural phenomena" [§97]. At USD 150 million, this is the largest single budget allocation in the action plan, reflecting Libya's underlying water crisis: documented pressures include seawater intrusion advancing 2 km inland in the Jifara plains and all coastal wastewater treatment plants described as non-operational [§100]. Delivery includes a national renewable energy strategy (solar plants and wind farms), real-time air and water quality monitoring stations, water resource diversification, wastewater treatment improvements with reuse in the forest sector, and green belt establishment. Directional aspiration — no quantitative threshold; specifies mechanism type.

National Commitment 12 — Sustainable urban planning maps to GBF Target 12. The commitment states: "By 2030, mainstream sustainable urban planning principles into national urban expansion plans, targeting human health and environmental outcomes in densely populated areas" [§97]. Implementation includes a comprehensive national city survey (by 2025), updated legislative frameworks for participatory urban planning (by 2025), urban planning plans for major cities (by 2025), green building standards guidelines (by 2026), and sectoral strategies for municipal waste management with energy from organic waste (by 2030), at a cost of USD 20 million [§100]. Directional aspiration — no quantitative threshold; specifies integration scope.

National Commitment 13 — Genetic resources and ABS maps to GBF Target 13. The commitment reads: "By 2030, update national legislation to ensure effective operation of the Biosafety Protocol (Cartagena Protocol) and the Protocol on the Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from Genetic Resources (Nagoya Protocol), as well as the documentation of traditional knowledge on uses of natural and genetic resources" [§97]. Implementation includes establishing a National Biosafety Committee for Genetic Mutation Products, a national register for reference laboratories in biosafety and biotechnology, and a national committee to regulate access to biological resources and heritage knowledge, at a cost of USD 8 million [§100]. Libya has not yet signed the Nagoya Protocol; as of the NBSAP it remains under consideration for signature [§97]. Commitments under this target dependent on Nagoya ratification are contingent on future accession. Directional aspiration — no quantitative threshold; legislative and procedural deliverables, with Nagoya-dependent elements contingent on ratification.

Theme III: Implementing, Mainstreaming, and Evaluating the Strategy (Targets 14–20)

National Commitment 14 — Biodiversity mainstreaming maps to GBF Target 14. The commitment states: "By 2030, identify and mainstream biodiversity values into sectoral policies and national planning processes, ensuring environmental impact assessments (strategic and site-level) are applied to all development projects, governmental and private" [§97]. Seven sectors are explicitly named for biodiversity mainstreaming: oil and gas, mining, agriculture, infrastructure, fisheries and fish farming, tourism, and transportation [§98]. The National Oil Corporation is listed as a responsible body. EIA guideline updates are targeted for 2024, with an economic assessment of national ecosystem values using international TEEB-type standards targeted for 2025, at a total cost of USD 4 million [§98]. Directional aspiration — "all" development projects implies universal coverage, but no baseline or coverage trajectory is defined.

National Commitment 15 — Sustainable production maps to GBF Target 15. The commitment states: "By 2030, develop national plans for sustainable production and use of natural resources and ecosystem services targeted by development projects, with follow-up mechanisms to minimise negative biodiversity impacts" [§97]. Implementation includes regulatory reform, green economy R&D, financial institution directives for SMEs, and sustainable procurement legislation, at a cost of USD 35 million [§101]. The National Oil Corporation is named among ten responsible bodies. Directional aspiration — no quantitative threshold.

National Commitment 16 — Sustainable consumption and waste maps to GBF Target 16. The commitment states: "By 2030, plan and implement national, sectoral, and local awareness programmes on biodiversity conservation and a 50% reduction in food and non-food waste, linking behavioural change on natural resource consumption to national poverty reduction efforts" [§97]. Implementation priorities include a national biodiversity awareness strategy by 2024, development of awareness-raising and training materials by 2024, and delivery of awareness activities for target groups through 2030, at a cost of USD 5 million [§101]. Measurable commitment — 50% waste reduction threshold, 2030 deadline.

National Commitment 17 — Capacity building and technology transfer maps to GBF Target 20. The commitment states: "By 2030, develop capacity-building programmes for technology transfer and scientific research, focusing on the negative impacts of biotechnology on biodiversity and human health and how to control them" [§97]. Implementation includes modernising research governance and intellectual property legislation by 2024, integrating biodiversity research gaps into university plans, an international scholarship programme, and a national biodiversity research competition, at a cost of USD 15 million [§102]. Directional aspiration — no quantitative threshold; specifies programme type and thematic focus.

National Commitment 18 — Harmful incentive reform maps to GBF Target 18. The commitment states: "By 2030, formulate a national strategy to redirect incentives harmful to biodiversity, converting 50% of harmful incentives to incentives with a positive or neutral biodiversity impact" [§97]. Early milestones include forming a national stakeholder team by 2023 and conducting a comprehensive incentive assessment by 2024. The National Oil Corporation is listed among responsible bodies, at a total cost of USD 9 million [§102]. Measurable commitment — 50% transformation threshold, 2030 deadline.

National Commitment 19 — Finance mobilisation maps to GBF Target 19. The commitment states: "By 2030, develop a national strategy for resource mobilisation and regulation of financial flows for effective biodiversity financial planning" [§97]. Priorities include evaluating government budgets and biodiversity-related expenditure (harmful versus beneficial) by 2023, developing legislative measures to align financial flows with biodiversity objectives by 2024, and producing a strategy on biodiversity investment feasibility for high-level decision makers, at a cost of USD 5 million [§102]. Libya has not yet signed the Nagoya Protocol; its commitment under this target to promote Nagoya conventions on access and benefit-sharing is contingent on future accession [§97]. Directional aspiration — no quantitative threshold; strategy development as deliverable.

National Commitment 20 — Inclusive participation maps to GBF Targets 22 and 23. The commitment states: "By 2030, ensure equitable and effective participation in biodiversity decision-making by communities, the most vulnerable, women, girls, and youth" [§97]. The NBSAP documents that women constitute an estimated 30% of the total labour force, rising to 70% in rural agricultural areas [§102] — providing the empirical basis for this commitment. Implementation includes regulatory decisions on biological resource ownership rights for vulnerable groups, promotion of women's and youth leadership at all levels of biodiversity decision-making, gender-specific guidelines for conservation and benefit-sharing, capacity-building programmes for technical skills and income-generating activities, and coordination mechanisms between women's and youth organisations and relevant ministries, at a cost of USD 3 million [§102]. Directional aspiration — no quantitative threshold; specifies participation quality and target groups.

Sources:

§7 — Executive Summary
§74 — Chapter Two > VI. Rangelands
§97 — V. National Biodiversity Action Plan > 1) National Strategic Targets and Objectives
§98 — V. National Biodiversity Action Plan > I. First Theme: Reducing Biodiversity Loss (cost tables)
§100 — V. National Biodiversity Action Plan > II. Second Theme: Sustainable Use of Biodiversity (cost tables)
§101 — V. National Biodiversity Action Plan > III. Third Theme (Targets 14–16)
§102 — V. National Biodiversity Action Plan > III. Third Theme (Targets 17–20)
§103 — V. National Biodiversity Action Plan > Strategy Evaluation

Libya's 2021 Protected Area Declaration Wave

In December 2021, the Ministry of Environment issued three ministerial decisions that transformed Libya's protected area system in a single month, expanding from 11 reserves covering 0.16% of national territory — established incrementally between 1978 and 1998 — to a network of more than 30 sites.

Decision No. 272/2021 declared 22 new coastal and marine protected areas, including: Papyrus Bay; the Gulf of Bomba and nearby islands (Fatha, Misurata, and Barda'a); Wadi Al Hamsa; Sabkha Ain Al-Shegaga and Sabkha Ain Zarqa; the sandy-rocky coast of Talmaitha–Aqla, designated a Man and the Biosphere Reserve for protection of human and natural heritage; Ain al-Zayana (North Benghazi); Sabkha and Lake Jaliana; the beaches of West Sirte (Althalathinat and Qubaiba); Ain and Sabkha Tawergha; Al-Malaha sabkha in Mitiga — described as the only natural wetlands in Greater Tripoli; and Sabkha Abu Kammash, a transboundary coastal sabkha shared with Tunisia that attracts flamingoes [§44].

Decision No. 273/2021 declared six inland wetland sites as Ramsar Site Reserves: Lake Gabaroun; the Lakes of Wau Al Namous Mountains (also designated Man and Biosphere Reserve); Lake Bazima northwest of Kufra; Lake Al-Maflaa in Al-Jaghbub on the Egyptian border; Um Al Maa Lake; and Ain al-Dhaban in Ghadames [§45].

Decision No. 277/2021 declared two wildlife protection sites: Wadi Qara'a Zaid in Wadi Al Shati, protecting Dorcas gazelle habitat; and Wadi al-Naga in Derna — also designated as a Man and Biosphere Reserve and Ramsar Site Reserve — covering mountain forests with mammals and birds of prey [§46].

Four additional sites are identified as proposed future reserves: Al-Jazaa Reserve in Jabal Al-Hasawneh, Wadi Qaraa Zaid Reserve in Wadi Al-Shati, Bzema Reserve northwest of Kufra, and Jodaym Reserve west of Tripoli [§47–§50]. A preliminary list of 24 marine and coastal candidate sites has been compiled, with features documented including Posidonia oceanica herbarium extent, fish nursery function, seabird breeding sites, loggerhead turtle nesting density, and monk seal habitat suitability [§51].

The December 2021 declarations establish the expanded baseline from which the monitoring and evaluation framework will measure progress toward National Commitment 3 (30% protected area coverage by 2030). The 0.16% to 30% gap represents the policy ambition; the 2021 ministerial decisions represent a concrete legislative step already taken.

Sources:

§44 — VIII. Nature reserves > 2) Newly declared reserves (Decision No. 272)
§45 — VIII. Nature reserves > 3) Recently declared inland wetland sites (Decision No. 273)
§46 — VIII. Nature reserves > 4) Internal sites for wildlife protection (Decision No. 277)
§47–§50 — VIII. Nature reserves > Proposed future reserves
§51 — VIII. Nature reserves > Marine and coastal site candidates

4. Delivery Architecture

Legislative Framework

Libya's biodiversity-relevant legislation spans environmental protection, forestry, fisheries, and water resources. Core instruments include Law No. 7 of 1982 on Environmental Protection, Law No. 15 of 2003 on Environmental Protection and Improvement, Law No. 5 of 1982 on Forest and Pasture Protection, and Law No. 14 of 1989 on Marine Resources Exploitation [§52]. Wildlife protection is addressed by Law No. 15 of 1984 (prohibiting poaching of wild animals) and Decree No. 453 of 1993 (specifically prohibiting hunting of land and sea turtles) [§55]. The NBSAP identifies that existing legislation "need to be developed and amended to suit the developments that occur in this field, along with determining the responsibility for the application of these laws and the penalties imposed when violating them" [§91], and designates drafting a new reserves law — clarifying declaration mechanisms, management, and penalties — as a 2023 priority [§98].

Flagship Programmes

The Libyan Sea Turtle Program (LibSTP), established in 2005 under a Ministry of Environment initiative, implements the National Action Plan for the Protection of Sea Turtles and their Habitats [§22]. The programme covers field surveys, nesting beach monitoring, volunteer training, and hatchling protection across the Gulf of Sirte, Benghazi, Jabal Akhdar, and Derna–Tobruk areas. Monitoring has run in cooperation with the Marine Biology Research Center (MBRC) and the Regional Activities Centre for Special Protected Areas (RAC/SPA) since the mid-1990s.

The Great Man-Made River Project (MRP) is a major water infrastructure programme whose agricultural water use is overseen by the Man-Made River Authority [§66]. Related water management bodies include the General Water Authority (GWA), the General Company for Water and Wastewater (GCWW) (established 2008), and the General Company for Water Desalination (GCWD) (established 2007) [§66].

International Agreements

Libya is party to the CBD (ratified 2001 under Law No. 11 of 2001), the Ramsar Convention (acceded 2000), the Convention on Migratory Species (signed 2002), ACCOBAMS (signed 2002), CITES (signed and ratified 2003), the Paris Agreement (ratified 2016), the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (ratified 1996), and the UNESCO World Heritage Convention (signed 1978) [§59]. Libya has not yet signed the Nagoya Protocol on access and benefit-sharing; as of the NBSAP it remains under consideration for signature [§97].

Institutional Coordination

The Ministry of Environment holds lead biodiversity management responsibility. The action plan names the National Oil Corporation — which generates more than 90% of government revenue — as a responsible body for National Commitments 14 (mainstreaming), 15 (sustainable production), and 18 (incentive reform) [§98][§101][§102]. The NBSAP calls for formation of a broadly representative national biodiversity committee encompassing all relevant authorities to oversee strategy implementation [§90]. Domestically, the stakeholder framework maps relationships with thirteen ministries, the NOC, civil society, and the private sector. International cooperation partners include UNEP, UNDP, IUCN, the EU, GIZ, the Italian Cooperation Authority, FAO, and the League of Arab States [§59].

Sources:

§22 — VIII. Sea Turtles
§52 — VIII. Nature reserves > IX. Legislative framework
§55 — Laws and decrees related to fishing
§59 — International Agreements and stakeholder relationship tables
§66 — Water Management, Policies, and Legislation
§90 — Formation of a National Committee for the Protection of Biodiversity
§91 — Developing environmental legislation
§97 — National Biodiversity Action Plan > National Strategic Targets
§98, §101, §102 — Action plan cost tables and responsible bodies

5. Monitoring and Accountability

The Ministry of Environment holds primary responsibility for implementation oversight, with the proposed national biodiversity committee designated to follow up on implementation and results [§90].

The NBSAP sets two formal evaluation milestones: a mid-term evaluation by the end of 2026 and an end-term evaluation by 2030 [§103]. No specific indicators are defined in the strategy; the NBSAP explicitly states that indicators will be "determined through consultation among the stakeholders involved in biodiversity" and that evaluations will be conducted annually based on these indicators once established [§103]. The strategy acknowledges that "in the absence of mechanisms for review and evaluation, this strategy cannot achieve its objectives" [§103].

The proposed evaluation methodology outlines seven steps: desk review of the strategy and action plan; review of alignment with national, regional, and international commitments; questionnaires distributed to national focal points and representatives of national entities; formal and informal interviews with those groups; interviews with national experts and regional consultants; review of national reports for international biodiversity conventions; and analysis of the effectiveness of national entities in implementing strategy objectives [§103].

The NBSAP identifies capacity gaps across the institutional system, noting that existing institutions and research centres "lack precise scientific disciplines in the various fields of biodiversity" [§93]. Civil society engagement is characterised as consisting of "a small number of NGOs interested in biodiversity" which "still have not worked effectively to ensure the effective participation of all segments of society" [§93]. Governance of protected areas has passed through several institutional configurations, most recently Decree No. 205 of 2001 establishing the Public Authority for Animal Resources with technical supervision of parks and reserves [§57].

Sources:

§57 — Institutional and Organizational Framework for National Parks and Nature Reserves
§90 — Formation of a National Committee for the Protection of Biodiversity
§93 — Current Capacities and Institutions for Biodiversity Management
§103 — V. National Biodiversity Action Plan > Strategy Evaluation

6. Finance and Resource Mobilisation

The action plan attaches costed budget estimates to each of its twenty national commitments. The total budgeted investment across all targets is USD 454.5 million [§98][§100][§101][§102]. These are planning estimates; the NBSAP does not identify any GEF project, GCF allocation, bilateral pledge, or domestic budget line confirmed for biodiversity. The finance architecture is forward-looking — committed to building institutional and legislative foundations for biodiversity finance by 2030, rather than disbursing from an established funding base.

The largest single allocation is USD 150 million assigned to National Commitment 11 (air and water quality, renewable energy transition, wastewater treatment, and water resource diversification) [§100] — a figure that exceeds the combined allocations for protected area expansion (USD 20 million) and ecosystem restoration (USD 40 million), reflecting Libya's underlying water crisis. Other significant allocations include USD 75 million for climate change and biodiversity programmes (Commitment 8), USD 35 million for sustainable production and consumption (Commitment 15), USD 25 million for species conservation and gene banking (Commitment 4), and USD 20 million each for ecosystem restoration (Commitment 2) and sustainable urban planning (Commitment 12).

National Commitment 19 addresses GBF Target 19 by committing to develop a national resource mobilisation strategy and regulate financial flows for biodiversity conservation. Phased priorities include evaluating government budgets and biodiversity-related expenditure by 2023, developing legislative measures to align financial flows with biodiversity objectives by 2024, and producing a strategy on biodiversity investment feasibility for high-level decision makers by 2030 [§102]. Implementation responsibility sits with the Ministries of Finance, Planning, and Environment, with an estimated cost of USD 5 million.

The oil and gas sector accounts for more than 70% of GDP, over 90% of government revenues, and 95% of export earnings [§60]. The NBSAP does not specify what share of oil revenues or overall government expenditure would be directed toward biodiversity, nor does it identify multilateral or bilateral funding sources. No alignment with GBF Target 19's quantitative benchmarks for international financial flows is stated.

Sources:

§60 — Chapter Two > Oil & Gas
§97 — National Biodiversity Action Plan > National Strategic Targets
§98, §100, §101, §102 — Action plan cost tables (Targets 1–20)

7. GBF Target Coverage

GBF Target 1: Spatial Planning

Tier 1 — Addressed. National Commitment 1 commits to integrating spatial planning for biodiversity into national regulation of state land and territorial waters by 2027. Delivery involves establishing a joint Ministry of Planning–Ministry of Environment unit for spatial planning and remote sensing, at a cost of USD 2.5 million. Detailed action-level commitments for this target were not available in the source material; the commitment is presented at the goal level. No indicators are defined; their development through stakeholder consultation is identified as a prerequisite step.

GBF Target 2: Ecosystem Restoration

Tier 1 — Addressed. National Commitment 2 commits to a full ecosystem assessment (terrestrial, marine, and freshwater) and restoration of 20% of degraded ecosystems by 2030, at a cost of USD 40 million. The NBSAP documents degradation across multiple ecosystem types — rangeland vegetation cover has changed qualitatively and quantitatively over four decades; coastal habitats face degradation from urban expansion, sewage discharge, and oil pollution; and Farwa Island has experienced erosion exceeding 10 metres in recent years. Detailed action-level commitments were not available in the source material; the commitment is presented at the goal level.

GBF Target 3: Protected Areas (30×30)

Tier 1 — Addressed. National Commitment 3 commits to expanding the protected area network to cover 30% of Libyan territory by 2030, from a baseline of 11 reserves covering 0.16% of national territory as of 2010. The December 2021 declaration wave added 22 coastal and marine protected areas (Decision No. 272), 6 inland Ramsar-type wetland sites (Decision No. 273), and 2 wildlife protection sites (Decision No. 277). Several sites carry dual Man and Biosphere Reserve and Ramsar Site Reserve designations; Sabkha Abu Kammash is a transboundary reserve shared with Tunisia. A preliminary list of 24 additional marine and coastal candidate sites has been compiled. Implementation includes a new reserves law, management plans for 15 existing reserves, and infrastructure development, at a cost of USD 20 million.

GBF Target 4: Species Recovery

Tier 1 — Addressed. National Commitment 4 commits to managing and conserving wild species biodiversity — especially endemic, endangered, and migratory species — within and outside the reserve network by 2030. The action plan schedules national Red List preparation for endemic species (by 2025), plant species (by 2027), and animal species (by 2028), and establishment of a gene bank for genetic origins, genetic maps, and digital-genomic sequencing, at a cost of USD 25 million. Among critically endangered species documented in the NBSAP: the Mediterranean monk seal (Monachus monachus), dama gazelle (Gazella dama), addax (Addax nasomaculatus), and Grobben's gerbil (Gerbillus grobbeni); the scimitar-horned oryx (Oryx dammah) is recorded as extinct in the wild in Libya.

GBF Target 5: Sustainable Harvest

Tier 1 — Addressed. National Commitment 5 commits to establishing a national framework for harvesting, sustainable use, and trade in wild species by 2030, including a national strategy, enforcement capacity building, and a monitoring programme, at a cost of USD 5 million. Documented context includes total fish production declining from 50,000 tons in 2000 to approximately 41,700 tons by 2013, and the collapse of territorial waters enforcement since 2011 that allowed foreign fishing vessels with advanced techniques to enter Libyan waters.

GBF Target 6: Invasive Alien Species

Tier 1 — Addressed. National Commitment 6 commits to reducing the rate of introduction of alien and invasive species by 50% by 2030, at a cost of USD 6 million. Implementation includes a national invasive species strategy, a national priority species list, early warning systems, and a specialised management unit within the Ministry of Environment. The NBSAP documents 73 exotic marine species in Libyan waters (fish constituting over 32.88% by species count), 29 invasive alien plant species on land (12 classified as highly invasive, majority of American origin), and ballast water from oil tankers as a documented invasion pathway.

GBF Target 7: Pollution Reduction

Tier 1 — Addressed. National Commitment 7 commits to a 50% reduction in organic nutrient pollution, 60% reduction in pesticides, and complete elimination of plastic waste dumping by 2030. National Commitment 11 (USD 150 million) carries the primary delivery mechanisms: real-time air and water quality monitoring stations, industrial emissions reduction guidelines, a national water resource diversification plan, wastewater and greywater treatment improvements with reuse in the forest sector, and agricultural water demand reduction guidelines. Documented pressures include seawater intrusion advancing 2 km inland in the Jifara plains, soil salinisation from saline groundwater irrigation, and all coastal wastewater treatment plants described as non-operational.

GBF Target 8: Climate and Biodiversity

Tier 1 — Addressed. National Commitment 8 commits to reducing the impacts of climate change on biodiversity by 25% through nature-based solutions by 2030, at a cost of USD 75 million. Programmes include nature-based solutions, agricultural policy review, rural community adaptation, and educational curricula changes. The NBSAP documents climate change impacts including disappearance of organisms at mountain peaks and decreasing flowering rates of plants in the Green Mountain and Nafusa Mountain regions, and projects temperature rises in all four seasons over the next 100 years that are expected to reduce arable land and shift agricultural cycles. The metric for quantifying "impacts of climate change on biodiversity" is not defined in the NBSAP.

GBF Target 9: Wild Species Use

Tier 1 — Addressed. National Commitment 9 commits to sustainable management of terrestrial, marine, and aquatic species to achieve food security and livelihoods by 2030. The NBSAP documents that Libyan rangelands carry approximately 7.5 million grazing animals against an estimated carrying capacity of 2.5 million — roughly three times the sustainable threshold. Marine fisheries support an economically significant harvest of 24 cephalopod species and multiple fin fish species. No quantitative management threshold or dedicated instruments are defined under this commitment.

GBF Target 10: Agriculture and Forestry

Tier 1 — Addressed. National Commitment 10 commits to sustainable farming methods for 40% of existing agricultural and forested areas and sustainable aquaculture methods for 50% by 2030, at a cost of USD 15 million. Six implementation priorities include forest digitalisation and mapping, guidelines on sustainable forest use and non-wood products, a database on agricultural biodiversity and fisheries, a Red List of Economic Plants and Domesticated Animals, a research programme for conservation of wild relatives of local agricultural species, and a solar energy programme for agriculture. Agriculture contributes approximately 2–3% of GDP — down from approximately 25% before the 1960s oil boom — with over 75% of food currently imported.

GBF Target 11: Ecosystem Services (NbS)

Tier 1 — Addressed. The NBSAP addresses ecosystem services through National Commitment 11 — which includes expanding parks and green belts for air quality regulation and improving wastewater treatment for reuse in the forest sector — and through additional actions embedded in the action plan including programmes to protect natural pollinators and restore soil integrity. Rangeland ecosystem services are documented as providing approximately 562,000 tons of annual feed requirements for grazing animals, preventing soil erosion, and reducing desertification effects.

GBF Target 12: Urban Biodiversity

Tier 1 — Addressed. National Commitment 12 commits to mainstreaming sustainable urban planning into national urban expansion plans by 2030, at a cost of USD 20 million. The action plan specifies near-term milestones: a comprehensive national city survey by 2025, updated legislative and governance frameworks for participatory urban planning by 2025, urban planning plans for major cities to prevent sprawl and informal settlements by 2025, and green building standards guidelines by 2026. Longer-term priorities include sectoral strategies for municipal waste management with energy from organic waste and wastewater reuse for urban green areas by 2030.

GBF Target 13: Genetic Resources / ABS

Tier 1 — Addressed. National Commitment 13 commits to updating national legislation to operationalise both the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety and the Nagoya Protocol on equitable benefit-sharing by 2030, at a cost of USD 8 million. Implementation includes establishing a National Biosafety Committee for Genetic Mutation Products to track genetically modified products and determine approval fees, a national register for reference laboratory licences for intentional environmental release, and a national committee to regulate access to biological resources and heritage knowledge. Libya has not yet signed the Nagoya Protocol; commitments under this target dependent on Nagoya ratification are contingent on future accession. Traditional knowledge documentation is explicitly included, with intellectual property rights maintained.

GBF Target 14: Mainstreaming

Tier 1 — Addressed. National Commitment 14 commits to mainstreaming biodiversity values into sectoral policies and applying environmental impact assessments to all development projects (governmental and private) by 2030, at a cost of USD 4 million. Seven sectors are explicitly named for mainstreaming: oil and gas, mining, agriculture, infrastructure, fisheries and fish farming, tourism, and transportation. The National Oil Corporation — which generates more than 90% of government revenue — is named as a responsible body. EIA guideline updates are targeted for 2024; an economic assessment of national ecosystem values using TEEB-type international standards is targeted for 2025.

GBF Target 15: Business Disclosure

Tier 2 — Mentioned. National Commitment 15 addresses sustainable production and use of natural resources and requires follow-up mechanisms to minimise negative biodiversity impacts from development projects, at a cost of USD 35 million. Implementation includes directing financial institutions to finance sustainable investments and SME projects in the green economy, and introducing regulatory reforms for sustainable consumption and production. The target does not require businesses to monitor, assess, or disclose their specific biodiversity risks, dependencies, and impacts.

GBF Target 16: Sustainable Consumption

Tier 1 — Addressed. National Commitment 16 commits to a 50% reduction in food and non-food waste and implementation of national awareness programmes on biodiversity conservation by 2030, at a cost of USD 5 million, explicitly linked to national poverty reduction efforts. Implementation includes a national biodiversity awareness strategy by 2024, awareness-raising and training materials by 2024, and delivery of awareness activities for target groups through 2030.

GBF Target 17: Biosafety

Tier 1 — Addressed. National Commitment 13 addresses biosafety through Cartagena Protocol operationalisation, including establishing a National Biosafety Committee for Genetic Mutation Products and a national register for reference laboratory licences for intentional environmental release. National Commitment 17 (USD 15 million) focuses explicitly on "the negative effects of biotechnology on biodiversity and human health, as well as how to control and reduce those effects," with priorities including modernising research governance legislation by 2024, integrating biodiversity research gaps into university plans, an international scholarship programme in cooperation with foreign universities and research centres, and a national biodiversity research competition. Combined budget across both targets: USD 23 million.

GBF Target 18: Harmful Subsidies

Tier 1 — Addressed. National Commitment 18 commits to formulating and implementing a national strategy to redirect harmful incentives and transform 50% of them into incentives with positive or neutral biodiversity impact by 2030, at a cost of USD 9 million. Early milestones include forming a national stakeholder team by 2023 and conducting a comprehensive national incentive assessment by 2024. The National Oil Corporation is explicitly listed among responsible bodies. Implementation priorities include guidelines for all development sectors on incentive transformation and a capacity-building plan.

GBF Target 19: Finance Mobilisation

Tier 1 — Addressed. National Commitment 19 commits to developing a national strategy for resource mobilisation and regulation of financial flows by 2030, at a cost of USD 5 million. Priorities include evaluating government budgets and biodiversity-related expenditure (harmful versus beneficial) by 2023, developing legislative measures to align financial flows with biodiversity objectives by 2024, and producing a strategy on biodiversity investment feasibility for high-level decision makers. Total action plan budgets across all 20 national commitments sum to approximately USD 454.5 million, without confirmed funding sources. Libya has not yet signed the Nagoya Protocol; the commitment under this target to promote Nagoya conventions on access and benefit-sharing is contingent on future accession. No alignment with GBF Target 19's quantitative benchmarks for international financial flows is stated in the NBSAP.

GBF Target 20: Capacity and Technology

Tier 1 — Addressed. National Commitment 17 commits to developing national, sectoral, and local capacity-building programmes for technology transfer and scientific research, with a specific focus on controlling the negative effects of biotechnology on biodiversity and human health, at a cost of USD 15 million. Priorities include modernising research governance and intellectual property legislation by 2024, integrating biodiversity research gaps into university and research centre plans, developing an international scholarship programme in cooperation with foreign universities and research centres, and establishing a national biodiversity research competition. Scientific research is explicitly linked to industry, development plans, and community needs.

GBF Target 21: Data and Information

Tier 2 — Mentioned. The NBSAP does not contain a standalone data and information national commitment. Database commitments are embedded within other targets: National Commitment 10 includes establishing a database on agricultural biodiversity and fisheries and a Red List of Economic Plants and Domesticated Animals; National Commitment 13 includes national mechanisms and databases for documenting access requests for biological resources and heritage knowledge, and maintaining an inventory of national biodiversity and publicly available traditional knowledge. The NBSAP identifies knowledge gaps across multiple taxonomic groups, noting that cetacean research is "very limited," no comprehensive coastal phytoplankton and zooplankton study exists for the full Libyan coast, and floral composition is "still relatively unknown."

GBF Target 22: Inclusive Participation

Tier 1 — Addressed. National Commitment 20 commits to equitable and effective participation in biodiversity decision-making by communities, the most vulnerable, women, girls, and youth by 2030, at a cost of USD 3 million. Implementation includes regulatory decisions on biological resource ownership rights for vulnerable groups, promotion of women's and youth leadership at all levels of biodiversity decision-making, gender-specific guidelines for conservation and benefit-sharing, capacity-building programmes for technical skills and income-generating activities, and coordination mechanisms between women's and youth organisations and relevant ministries. Seven responsible bodies are named, including both the Ministry of Social Affairs and the Ministry of Youth.

GBF Target 23: Gender Equality

Tier 1 — Addressed. National Commitment 20 addresses gender equality in biodiversity governance. The NBSAP documents that women constitute an estimated 30% of the total labour force, rising to 70% in rural agricultural areas — providing the empirical foundation for the commitment. Priorities include promoting women's meaningful, informed, and effective participation and leadership at all levels of biodiversity-related decision-making; gender-specific guidelines for conservation, sustainable use, and benefit-sharing; capacity-building for women and youth to develop technical skills and income-generating activities tied to biodiversity conservation; and cross-ministerial coordination mechanisms for gender and biodiversity programmes.