Yemen

National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan

Western AsiaSource: Third National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP III)

1. Overview

Yemen's Third National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP III) aligns national biodiversity commitments with the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF), endorsed by CBD parties in December 2022 [§6]. The document is described as "a living document which is updated quinquennially following the CBD amendments and based on intensive stakeholders' consultations processes and lessons learned from the previous NBSAP" [§6]. Yemen ratified the UN Convention on Biological Diversity in 1996 and produced two preceding strategies: NBSAP I (2007–2017) and NBSAP II (2011–2020) [§6]. NBSAP III covers the period 2025–2030.

The strategy organises its commitments under six strategic pathways* — Yemen's thematic organising framework — within which 19 national commitments***Yemen's NBSAP calls these "national targets." This page uses "national commitment" to avoid confusion with the 23 GBF Targets; both use the word "target" and the two numbering systems do not correspond. For example, Yemen's national commitment 13 maps to GBF Targets 13 and 14.Yemen's NBSAP calls these "strategic pathways." These are Yemen's thematic organising themes, distinct from the GBF's four long-term Goals (A–D). are distributed. These 19 national commitments are mapped to 23 GBF Targets, with several commitments addressing multiple targets simultaneously: national commitment 13 addresses both GBF Target 13 and GBF Target 14; national commitments 18 and 19 each address two targets. GBF Target 16 (sustainable consumption) receives no national commitment.

The Environmental Protection Authority (EPA) serves as the national CBD focal point and lead implementation agency [§138]. NBSAP III identifies armed conflict as an explicit governance variable that has weakened institutional capacity and directly contributed to biodiversity loss — a structural feature addressed in the dedicated section below.

Yemen's NBSAP III sets 19 national commitments against an indicative five-year budget of US$500 million, with current annual biodiversity expenditure estimated at approximately US$13 million. The strategy's most structurally distinctive features are a protected area baseline of 0.77% of land area — with a commitment to reach 20% by 2030 — and the explicit treatment of a decade-long armed conflict as a direct biodiversity driver and implementation prerequisite.

Sources:

  • §6 — Executive summary
  • §84 — 4.0. Framework of action/pathways
  • §85 — 4.1. Biodiversity pathways and targets
  • §138 — 6.1.4. Strengthening Institutional Arrangements and collaborations

2. Ecological Context

Yemen occupies 527,970 km² at the southern tip of the Arabian Peninsula, positioned at the juncture of three major biogeographic regions — the Palearctic, Afrotropical, and Oriental — a convergence that underpins species diversity across avian, mammal, plant, and marine taxa [§16, §19]. Its 2,252 km coastline spans the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, and Arabian Sea; over 180 islands include the Socotra Archipelago, whose 825 documented plant species include 37% endemics, and 12 endemic bird species among 229 recorded [§16, §50, §52]. On the mainland, 455 plant species are classified as endemic [§50].

The country records 469 bird species, 71 terrestrial mammal species, 103 reptile species, and 969 fish species in its waters [§51, §52, §44]. All four marine turtle species present in Yemeni waters are IUCN-classified as endangered; the Sharma–Jethmoon coast is described as the largest Green Turtle nesting area of global importance [§42, §53]. Seven mammal species are considered endangered, including three of four gazelle species; the Cheetah, Arabian Oryx, and Queen of Sheba's Gazelle are confirmed extinct in the wild [§53].

Landcover is dominated by barren land (83.95%), with agricultural land at 5.31%, rangeland at 3.07%, and forest at 1.86% [§19]. Over 15 million Yemenis are directly dependent on ecosystems for food, fuelwood, medicines, and livelihoods [§57]. Freshwater scarcity defines Yemen's ecological constraints: total annual water consumption of 3.565 billion m³ exceeds renewable resources (2.1 billion m³), with groundwater being mined at 1.465 billion m³ per year — the largest single driver of the US$120.17 million freshwater budget in the action plan [§48]. Qat cultivation alone accounts for 30% of agricultural water abstraction and drives heavy pesticide use [§48, §59].

Forest loss is accelerating: an estimated 5 million trees have been felled since 2018, approximately 780 ha deforested annually, driven by a population 70% dependent on fuelwood [§22]. Over 21 invasive plant species are documented, with Prosopis juliflora causing significant degradation in protected areas [§64]. Coral reefs face illegal harvesting, destructive fishing, and coastal erosion from sea level rise [§26].

The national Biodiversity Intactness Index is cited as 0.87 in the body strategy [§86]; the executive summary chapter cites 0.97 for the same metric in the same document [§58]. This page uses the body strategy figure (0.87). Inside protected areas, the BII stands at 0.55 [§86], a gap the NBSAP attributes directly to governance collapse within PA boundaries.

Sources:

  • §16 — 2.1. Location and physical features
  • §19 — 2.4. Yemen's Ecosystems and Biodiversity
  • §22 — 2.4.2.1. Forest ecosystems status
  • §26 — 2.4.4.1. Marine ecosystems status
  • §42 — 2.4.4. Marine Ecosystems > h) Sea Turtles
  • §44 — 2.4.4. Marine Ecosystems > j) Fishes
  • §48 — 2.4.5.1. Aquatic ecosystems status
  • §50 — 2.6.1. Flora species
  • §51 — 2.6.2. Fauna species
  • §52 — 2.6.3. Bird species
  • §53 — 2.7. Trends in species population
  • §57 — 2.10. Factors affecting biodiversity loss in Yemen
  • §58 — 2.10.1.1. War/conflicts in the country
  • §59 — 2.10.1.2. Unsustainable Agricultural practices
  • §64 — 2.10.1.7. Spread of invasive alien species
  • §86 — 4.2. Pathway 1

Conflict, Governance Collapse, and Biodiversity Loss

Armed conflict is not background context in Yemen's NBSAP III — it is named as a direct driver of biodiversity loss in the executive summary and the threats chapter [§6, §58], and recurs as a structural constraint across at least five distinct parts of the document.

The NBSAP documents specific ecological effects. Protected areas report a Biodiversity Intactness Index of 0.55 against a national BII of 0.87 — a within-country gap the strategy attributes directly to the collapse of governance inside PA boundaries [§86]. Where PA management depends on institutional presence and enforcement capacity, a decade of armed conflict has stripped both away.

Species monitoring has been a casualty as well. The NBSAP acknowledges that time-series data on species populations does not exist due to the decade-long conflict [Target 4 analysis, Target 21 analysis]. National commitments on species recovery and data access therefore begin from a near-zero baseline for longitudinal evidence. The CITES listing milestone — a concrete 2030 target under national commitment 4 — is partly a data-gathering exercise to compensate for this gap.

The conflict has also reconfigured the pressures on ecosystems. The fuel crisis, exacerbated by restrictions on fuel movements, has forced communities to rely entirely on firewood, directly accelerating forest loss [§22]. Illegal hunting and trade of species has intensified as livelihoods have collapsed [§6].

At the institutional level, the NBSAP identifies weak institutional arrangements as the principal shortcoming inherited from NBSAP II, attributing this weakness in part to conflict conditions that prevented sustained investment in EPA and line ministry capacity [§138]. The protected area expansion budget includes US$11 million specifically for institutional capacity building [§92].

The NBSAP states directly: "conflict resolutions at both the national level and community levels will contribute immensely to the attainment of national biodiversity vision" [§85]. The document makes conflict resolution a precondition for achieving its 2030 commitments. Yemen's structural response includes a proposed independent audit body under the Ministry of Finance for M&E transparency — described as "crucial for transparency, which is one of the essential components for attracting international funding" [§140].

Sources:

  • §6 — Executive summary
  • §22 — 2.4.2.1. Forest ecosystems status
  • §58 — 2.10.1.1. War/conflicts in the country
  • §85 — 4.1. Biodiversity pathways and targets
  • §86 — 4.2. Pathway 1
  • §92 — 4.2.2. Outcome 1.2 > The target
  • §138 — 6.1.4. Strengthening Institutional Arrangements and collaborations
  • §140 — 6.2. Monitoring and evaluation

3. National Commitments and GBF Alignment

NBSAP III contains 19 national commitments, described by the strategy as "specific, measurable, achievable and time-bound" [§84]. In practice, 9 of the 19 meet the criteria for a measurable commitment (quantitative threshold with a defined deadline); 10 are directional aspirations (specifying intent and direction without quantitative thresholds). All monitoring baselines are listed as "to be determined" in the M&E template and will first be established in an inception report at commencement of implementation [§144].

National commitment 1 — Spatial planning (GBF Target 1)

By 2030, 20% of areas of environmental importance under spatial planning and effective management; by 2050, all land under spatial planning to prevent land use changes in biodiversity-rich ecosystems, including sustainably increasing the area, quality, and connectivity of green and blue spaces in urban and densely populated areas [§85].

Delivery mechanisms include establishing a National Spatial Planning Unit, developing national land use plans and zoning identifying ecologically sensitive zones, and enforcing Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) [§96, §97]. Remote sensing and NDVI vegetation index maps are specified for monitoring land use changes [§146]. Indicative budget: US$17.1 million.

Measurable commitment. Two quantified thresholds (20% by 2030; 100% by 2050) with defined deadlines.

Indicator: Percentage of areas of environmental importance under spatial planning and effective management; monitored quarterly.

National commitment 2 — Ecosystem restoration (GBF Target 2)

By 2030, restore 20% of degraded ecosystems on land and inland waters, coastal marine environments, wetlands, mangroves, and forests; by 2050, effectively restore all degraded ecosystems [§85].

Implementation follows a nine-step sequence beginning with national mapping and classification of degraded ecosystems, development of restoration plans using blended traditional knowledge and science-based approaches, and community training [§89]. Pro-poor livelihood initiatives — including alternative energy, livestock feed from Prosopis juliflora, apiculture, and aquaculture — are integrated into the restoration strategy [§89]. Indicative budget under Pathway 1: US$165.43 million.

Measurable commitment. Quantified thresholds (20% by 2030; 100% by 2050) with defined deadlines. Note: GBF Target 2 calls for 30% restoration by 2030; Yemen commits to 20%.

Indicator: Percentage of degraded ecosystems restored; monitored quarterly.

National commitment 3 — Protected areas (GBF Target 3)

By 2030, 20% of biodiversity-rich ecosystems conserved and managed under effective and interconnected terrestrial and marine protected areas with joint management systems, where local communities play an active role [§85].

Yemen's current protected area coverage stands at 0.77% of land area — expanding to 20% represents a near-complete transformation of the PA estate. The PA BII of 0.55 (against a national BII of 0.87) indicates that existing PAs are not effectively managed [§86]; see the conflict section above for the governance context. Actions include declaring new PAs under Law 26 of 1995, developing community co-management plans, restoring natural habitats within PAs, wildlife corridor identification, and US$11 million specifically for PA institutional capacity building [§91, §92]. Both in-situ conservation (habitat restoration, recovery programmes, on-farm agricultural biodiversity conservation) and ex-situ conservation (seed storage, pollen conservation, captive breeding) are specified [Target 3 analysis]. Indicative budget: US$19.5 million.

Measurable commitment. Quantified threshold (20% by 2030) with a defined deadline. Note: GBF Target 3 requires 30%; Yemen commits to 20%.

Indicator: Percentage of biodiversity-rich ecosystems under effective PAs; monitored quarterly.

National commitment 4 — Species recovery (GBF Target 4)

Urgent measures to prevent extinction caused by human activities, natural factors, and climate change; by 2030, list all endangered species under CITES and implement specific conservation measures for priority threatened species [§85].

Three large mammals are confirmed extinct in the wild in Yemen: the Cheetah, Arabian Oryx, and Queen of Sheba's Gazelle [§53]. Seven mammal species are currently endangered; 8 species (7 from Socotra) are listed in the IUCN Red Data Book; all four marine turtle species in Yemeni waters are IUCN-endangered [§53]. The strategy acknowledges the absence of time-series population data due to the armed conflict. Actions include a national species survey against the IUCN vulnerability index, strategic conservation plans per species, a financing strategy for species conservation, and poverty alleviation programmes (US$7 million) to reduce illegal biodiversity activities [§93, §94]. The commitment also addresses genetic diversity: crop gene pool erosion linked to inadequate biosafety management for Living Modified Organisms and insufficient seed banks, gene banks, and herbaria [§53].

Directional aspiration. "Prevent extinction caused by human activities, natural factors, and climate change" specifies intent without a quantitative extinction-risk reduction threshold. The CITES listing milestone by 2030 is a process milestone, not a biodiversity outcome measure.

Indicator: Number of species listed under CITES; annual monitoring.

National commitment 5 — Sustainable harvest (GBF Target 5)

By 2030, ensure harvest rates of all species are at or below the maximum sustainable yield and reduce illegal trade of species by 20% [§85].

The fishery sector contributes 3% to GDP but stock data is characterised in the NBSAP as severely lacking due to absent scientific research [§101]. Delivery instruments include a fisheries management plan with annual harvest quotas for all fish species, strengthened Ministry of Fish Wealth surveillance to reduce illegal fishing by international vessels, and a proposed Environmental Police force with "equivalent deterrent powers" (US$3 million) [§102, §147].

Measurable commitment. The MSY ceiling is a defined threshold; the 20% illegal trade reduction is quantified with a 2030 deadline.

National commitment 6 — Invasive alien species (GBF Target 6)

By 2030, prevent the introduction of any new invasive species; eradicate existing invasive alien species at environmentally priority sites; control them at lower-priority sites [§85].

Over 21 invasive plant species are documented. Prosopis juliflora causes significant degradation in protected areas; alien honeybee genera have reduced the native Apis mellifera jemenitica through Varroa mite transmission [§64]. Rather than treating Prosopis juliflora as a pure management cost, the NBSAP proposes converting it into charcoal, livestock feed, and cooking gas as a poverty-alleviation mechanism — eradication combined with livelihood dividend [§109]. Border control capacity strengthening (US$1 million) targets prevention. Total indicative budget: US$5.84 million.

Directional aspiration. Zero new introductions is a defined threshold, but "eradicate at priority sites / control at lower-priority sites" lacks quantitative scope — no percentage of sites or area coverage is specified for the eradication and control elements.

Indicator: Number of new invasive species introductions; number of priority sites where invasive species are eradicated or controlled.

National commitment 7 — Pollution reduction (GBF Target 7)

By 2030, a 20% reduction in agricultural chemicals and pesticides; by 2050, 70% recycling, reuse, and reduction of plastic waste [§85].

The agricultural sector accounts for over 90% of water abstraction nationally; qat production accounts for 30% of agricultural water abstraction and drives heavy pesticide and fertiliser use, contributing to aquifer depletion and pollination disruption [§48, §59]. Waste management actions include a single-use plastics ban, technology transfer for wastewater treatment (US$5 million), tradable emission permits, and industrial waste management plans [§107, §147, §148]. Indicative budget: US$19.4 million.

Measurable commitment. Two quantified thresholds (20% by 2030; 70% by 2050) with defined deadlines.

Indicator: Percentage reduction in agricultural chemicals and pesticides; plastic recycling rate; monitored monthly for pollution levels.

National commitment 8 — Climate and biodiversity (GBF Target 8)

By 2030, integrate biodiversity within the Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC) for 2025–2030 by restoring at least 15% of degraded ecosystems (wetlands, mangroves, forests, and terraces) to increase carbon absorption capacity [§85].

Actions include developing the National Adaptation Plan (NAP) with specific biodiversity components (US$10 million), a sectoral adaptation plan for ecosystems and biodiversity (US$20 million), and revision of the NDC to mainstream biodiversity and ecosystem restoration for greenhouse gas absorption (US$30 million) [§110]. Blue carbon ecosystems — mangroves and seagrasses — and traditional terrace networks are named restoration targets. Total indicative budget: US$72.51 million, the second-largest single allocation in the plan.

Measurable commitment. Quantified threshold (15% restoration) with a defined 2030 deadline and named ecosystem types.

Indicator: Percentage of degraded ecosystems restored for carbon absorption; annual monitoring.

National commitment 9 — Sustainable ecosystem management (GBF Target 9)

By 2030, manage all ecosystems sustainably to enhance their contribution to the national economy and community livelihoods by 10%; by 70% by 2050 [§85].

Measurable commitment. Two quantified thresholds (10% by 2030; 70% by 2050) with defined deadlines. Caveat: the methodology for measuring "contribution to economy and livelihoods" is not yet specified in the NBSAP.

Indicator: Percentage increase in ecosystem contribution to national economy and livelihoods; annual monitoring.

National commitment 10 — Agriculture and forestry (GBF Target 10)

By 2030, implement ecosystem-based approaches in all agricultural systems (agriculture, aquaculture, fisheries, and forestry) to ensure sustainable food production and prevent ecosystem degradation [§85].

Actions include developing a national sustainable agriculture strategy, removing perverse agricultural subsidies and replacing them with environmentally sustainable instruments, promoting eco-labelling, and rehabilitating terrace networks (US$5 million) [§99, §100]. The Green Middle East Initiative — afforestation, agroforestry, sand dune and valley bank stabilisation, and drainage basin management — is budgeted at US$6 million [§146].

Directional aspiration. "Implement ecosystem-based approaches in all systems" specifies direction and scope but defines no quantitative threshold for what constitutes successful implementation.

Indicator: Percentage of agricultural systems implementing ecosystem-based approaches; annual monitoring.

National commitment 11 — Ecosystem services (GBF Target 11)

By 2030, restore 20% of priority degraded ecosystems to support community livelihoods and disaster risk reduction; by 2050, restore and protect aquatic ecosystems to provide water services to 80% of Yemen's population [§85].

The freshwater management budget of US$120.17 million is the single largest outcome allocation in the plan, covering desalination plants in at least four coastal areas (US$45 million), dam construction (US$7 million), a national rainwater harvesting master plan inclusive of fog harvesting technologies (US$12 million), and renovation of traditional water storage systems in at least 10 mountainous areas (US$14 million) [§105, §147].

Measurable commitment. Two quantified thresholds (20% restoration by 2030; 80% population served by 2050) with defined deadlines.

Indicator: Percentage of degraded ecosystems restored; percentage of population with water services from restored aquatic ecosystems.

National commitment 12 — Urban biodiversity (GBF Target 12)

By 2030, integrate urban green spaces into urban land use planning, ensuring connectivity with nearby ecosystems to enhance the flow of ecosystem services and improve human health and well-being [§85].

The General Authority of Lands, Survey and Urban Planning (GALSUP) is the named institutional partner. The NBSAP contextualises this commitment against rapid urban encroachment into ecologically sensitive areas — mangroves, forests, and wetlands — driven by high population growth, informal settlements, and outdated urban plans.

Directional aspiration. No quantitative threshold for green space area, proportion of cities covered, or connectivity metrics.

Indicator: Area of urban green spaces integrated into land use planning; annual monitoring.

National commitment 13 — Genetic resources, ABS, and mainstreaming (GBF Targets 13 and 14)

By 2030, engage communities in the value chain of ecosystem products and ensure fair rewards for managing genetic resources; integrate the total economic value of biodiversity and ecosystems into national planning processes [§85].

Yemen's NBSAP aligns national commitment 13 to both GBF Target 13 (genetic resources and ABS) and GBF Target 14 (mainstreaming). Close to half of Yemenis are dependent on forest and rangeland resources. Actions include enacting legislation for equitable benefit sharing, developing a non-timber forest products (NTFP) value chain strategy, developing a national partnership strategy between communities and multinational corporations, and constructing national accounts using the World Bank's Wealth Accounting and Valuation of Ecosystem Services (WAVES) framework [§113, §115, §123]. Indicative budget for genetic resource income: US$5.02 million.

Directional aspiration. "Engage communities" and "integrate economic value" specify intent without quantitative thresholds for participation rates, income outcomes, or planning system coverage.

Indicator: Number of communities in ecosystem product value chains; integration of total economic value into national planning; annual monitoring.

National commitment 14 — Business disclosure (GBF Target 15)

By 2030, ensure all companies transparently disclose profits from genetic resource use and potential ecosystem risks, implement risk mitigation systems, and ensure fair benefit-sharing with communities [§85].

The national commitment focuses on genetic resource profit disclosure and benefit-sharing rather than the broader biodiversity risk and dependency disclosure envisioned by GBF Target 15. No supply chain due diligence framework or corporate biodiversity footprint assessment is specified.

Directional aspiration. "Ensure all companies" specifies scope but no quantitative compliance threshold or disclosure rate is defined; "fair benefit-sharing" and "effective risk mitigation" are qualitative.

Indicator: Number of companies disclosing genetic resource profits and ecosystem risks; annual monitoring.

National commitment 15 — Biosafety (no declared GBF alignment)

By 2030, train all relevant stakeholders in biosafety measures, benefit from eco-friendly biotechnology, and strengthen monitoring of GMO transportation, handling, and use in line with the Cartagena Protocol [§85].

Yemen's NBSAP does not assign a GBF Target number to this commitment in its Table 7 mapping. This page does not map it to GBF Target 17 on its own authority. The commitment addresses inadequate EPA biosafety unit capacity and limited quarantine centre infrastructure, cited as factors enabling crop gene pool erosion through uncontrolled Living Modified Organisms [§53].

Directional aspiration. "Train all relevant stakeholders" and "strengthen monitoring" specify direction without quantitative thresholds for training coverage or monitoring frequency.

Indicator: Number of stakeholders trained in biosafety measures; monitored quarterly.

National commitment 16 — Harmful subsidies (GBF Target 18)

By 2030, halve the monetary value of subsidies harmful to biodiversity; promote environmentally positive incentives targeting green technologies, ecosystem-based programmes, and clean and renewable energy [§85].

Specific harmful subsidies targeted include cheap diesel and fertiliser subsidies that drive water over-abstraction, and — explicitly named — subsidies for pumping water for qat cultivation [§150]. The NBSAP proposes redirecting subsidy savings to biodiversity conservation. Indicative budget for market correction instruments: US$1.22 million.

Measurable commitment. "Halve" is a defined 50% reduction threshold with a 2030 deadline.

Indicator: Monetary value of subsidies harmful to biodiversity; annual monitoring.

National commitment 17 — Finance mobilisation (GBF Target 19)

By 2030, mobilise financial resources from all funding sources to bridge the biodiversity financing gap by 20%; increase to 80% by 2050 [§85].

The NBSAP explicitly acknowledges that no formal biodiversity financing gap assessment has been conducted for Yemen [§115]. The 20% bridging target is set without a confirmed baseline gap figure. Actions include developing a biodiversity financing strategy, building institutional capacity for international fundraising, and establishing an Environmental Protection Fund (US$0.3 million) [§118].

Measurable commitment. Quantified thresholds (20% by 2030; 80% by 2050) with defined deadlines. Caveat: the financing gap baseline has not been formally assessed; these thresholds are targets against an undefined quantity.

Indicator: Percentage reduction in biodiversity financing gap; annual monitoring.

National commitment 18 — Capacity, technology, and data (GBF Targets 20 and 21)

By 2030, ensure an adequate scientific base, transfer traditional knowledge, enhance research and monitoring capabilities, and ensure unrestricted access to information and technology for all stakeholders including community members [§85].

EPA is to establish a central data storage facility accessible to all stakeholders. An independent audit body under the Ministry of Finance is to verify M&E reports. Specific technologies identified include plant propagation, genetic conservation, GIS, and remote sensing. Traditional knowledge documentation is a named strategic action, explicitly targeting women, youth, people with special needs, and children [§140, Target 20 analysis].

Directional aspiration. All elements are qualitative or process-oriented; no quantitative thresholds for research output, data accessibility rates, or monitoring coverage.

Indicator: Unrestricted access to information and technology for all stakeholders; annual monitoring.

National commitment 19 — Inclusive participation and gender (GBF Targets 22 and 23)

By 2030, ensure fair and reasonable representation of women, youth, and vulnerable groups in biodiversity management bodies; adopt a gender-responsive approach to participation in environmental action and decision-making at all levels [§85].

Legal framework reform to recognise communities as equal partners in natural resource management is specified on a 6-month timeline. Vulnerable Groups Associations (VGA — women and children) are listed as institutional partners in the Action Plan. The strategy adopts an all-of-Government, all-of-society approach as an overarching NBSAP principle.

Directional aspiration. "Fair and reasonable representation" lacks percentage targets or defined composition thresholds. The gender-responsive approach is a stated principle without a quantitative equity benchmark.

Indicator: Representation of women, youth, and vulnerable groups in biodiversity management committees and working groups; annual monitoring.

Sources:

  • §84 — 4.0. Framework of action/pathways
  • §85 — 4.1. Biodiversity pathways and targets
  • §86 — 4.2. Pathway 1
  • §89 — 4.2.1. Outcome 1.1 > The targets
  • §91–§94 — 4.2.2. Outcome 1.2
  • §96–§97 — 4.2.3. Outcome 1.3
  • §99–§100 — Pathway 2 > Sustainable agroecosystems
  • §101–§102 — Pathway 2 > Marine ecosystems
  • §105 — Pathway 2 > Freshwater
  • §107–§109 — Pathway 2 > Pollution and invasive species
  • §110 — Pathway 2 > Climate
  • §113–§115 — Pathway 3 > ABS and genetic resources
  • §118 — Pathway 4 > Financing
  • §123 — Pathway 5 > Output 5.1
  • §125 — Pathway 5 > Subsidy reform
  • §144 — Annex 1: M&E Template
  • §150 — Annex 3: Action Plan

4. Delivery Architecture

Legal Framework

Yemen's biodiversity legal framework centres on Law 26 of 1995 (the Environmental Protection Law), which establishes the Environmental Protection Authority, mandates protected area declarations, and requires Environmental Impact Assessment as a prerequisite for development project licences [§56]. EIA remained voluntary until 2005; EPA received formal legal authority over EIA procedures in that year [§139]. Complementary instruments include Law No. 2 of 2006 (fishing and aquatic life exploitation), Law No. 11 of 1993 (marine environment protection from oil shipping pollution), the Water and Irrigation Law of 1999 (sustainable water use and irrigation oversight), Law No. 25 of 1999 (herbicide and pesticide handling, registration, and monitoring), and Law No. 39 of 1999 (waste management, including a prohibition on non-biodegradable plastic bags) [§56]. A dedicated Forest Law covers forest protection, erosion control, desertification, and prohibits six categories of harmful forest activities [§56].

Conservation and Restoration

The protected area expansion programme operates under Law 26 of 1995, targeting the declaration of biodiversity-rich ecosystems as PAs and development of community-based co-management plans with decentralised management structures. US$11 million is allocated specifically to PA institutional capacity — the largest single capacity-building line in the plan [§92]. Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) plans are to cover all coastal areas (US$1 million) [§146].

The National Adaptation Plan (NAP) and a dedicated ecosystems and biodiversity sectoral adaptation plan are the flagship climate instruments, together budgeted at US$30 million [§110]. The Green Middle East Initiative supports afforestation, agroforestry, sand dune stabilisation, protective belts, windbreaks, and drainage basin management across the country (US$6 million) [§146]. Blue carbon ecosystem restoration — mangroves and seagrasses — is integrated into both the climate and PA programmes.

Water Infrastructure

Freshwater management receives the plan's largest single outcome allocation: US$120.17 million. Named infrastructure includes desalination plants in at least four coastal areas (US$45 million), dam construction and water reservoirs (US$7 million), a national rainwater harvesting master plan inclusive of fog harvesting technologies (US$12 million), and renovation of traditional water storage systems in at least 10 mountainous areas (US$14 million) [§105, §147].

Finance Mechanisms

The Environmental Protection Fund is proposed as the central instrument for managing payment for ecosystem services (PES) revenues and international financing, budgeted at US$0.3 million to establish [§118]. PES schemes span water abstraction (polluter-pays), fertiliser pollution, fisheries, fuelwood harvesting permits, park fees, tourism levies, and carbon taxes [§123, §125]. The Agricultural and Cooperative Bank (CAC Bank) is assigned to provide loans at reasonable interest rates for small income-generating projects in agriculture, fisheries, and forestry (US$5 million) [§150]. Public-private partnerships are proposed for national parks, tourism ventures, and the fishery industry [§132]. Yemen's total indicative budget for NBSAP III is US$500 million across the 2025–2030 period [§132].

Sources:

  • §56 — 2.9.1. Legal framework for biodiversity conservation and protection
  • §91–§92 — 4.2.2. Outcome 1.2
  • §105 — Pathway 2 > Freshwater targets
  • §110 — Pathway 2 > Climate
  • §118 — Pathway 4 > Financing
  • §123–§125 — Pathway 5
  • §132 — 5.0. NBS Budget and Resource Mobilization
  • §139 — 6.1.5. Synergies with existing frameworks
  • §146–§150 — Annex 3: Action Plan

5. Monitoring and Accountability

The Environmental Protection Authority (EPA) is the lead agency for NBSAP III implementation, coordination, and M&E reporting [§140]. EPA is to create biodiversity focal points within line ministries and establish corresponding community and private sector focal points within EPA itself [§138]. Multiple institutions share monitoring responsibilities: EPA, the Ministry of Water and Environment (MWE), and the Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Fisheries (MAIF) share responsibility for spatial planning, restoration, and PA indicators; the Ministry of Finance (MoF), EPA, and MWE share responsibility for financial resource mobilisation; the Ministry of Social Affairs and Labour (MSAL), Ministry of Local Administration (MOLA), and MWE share responsibility for the governance and gender representation target [§144].

The M&E framework covers over 30 indicators across 19 national commitments, using a results-based monitoring approach supplemented by process monitoring [§140]. EPA is to develop a central data storage facility accessible to all stakeholders [§140]. An independent audit body under the Ministry of Finance is to be established to conduct timely audits on all M&E reports before clearance to the CBD Clearing-House Mechanism (CHM) [§140].

The M&E reporting schedule comprises:

  • Inception report — produced at commencement of NBSAP III implementation; establishes baselines, methodology, indicators, data collection methods, responsible agents, and report formats. All monitoring baselines are currently listed as "to be determined" and will first be confirmed in this report [§144].
  • Quarterly and annual reports — synthesised from daily and weekly activity data deposited by each responsible agent in the central storage facility [§140].
  • Mid-term evaluation [§140].
  • Terminal evaluation — EPA-led, covering the final annual period (2029), assessing whether overall national commitments have been achieved and forming the basis for NBSAP IV [§140].

Annual reporting is submitted to the CHM [§140]. Monitoring frequencies vary by national commitment: quarterly for spatial planning, ecosystem restoration, PA coverage, and biosafety; monthly for pollution levels; yearly for most remaining commitments [§144].

NBSAP III covers 2025–2030. The strategy notes that "implementation commences once the NBS is adopted at national level and announced at all levels" [§133]; the source material does not indicate whether formal adoption has occurred.

Sources:

  • §12 — Implementation plans and needs
  • §133 — 6.0. Implementation plans and requirements
  • §138 — 6.1.4. Strengthening Institutional Arrangements and collaborations
  • §140 — 6.2. Monitoring and evaluation
  • §144 — Annex 1: M&E Template

6. Finance and Resource Mobilisation

NBSAP III sets an indicative total budget of approximately US$500 million for 2025–2030 (US$100 million annually) [§132]. Current biodiversity expenditure is estimated at approximately US$13 million per year — less than 1% of national expenditure — against an NBSAP II financing needs estimate of US$102 million [§132]. International funding historically accounts for approximately 80% of biodiversity financing in the country [§132]. The 2014 total economic value of Yemen's key ecosystems was estimated at US$287,829 million, approximately ten times GDP [§54].

The budget is distributed across six pathways. The largest allocations are to Pathway 1 (conservation and restoration: US$165.43 million) and Pathway 2 (sustainable use), which includes US$120.17 million for freshwater ecosystem management and US$72.51 million for climate-resilient ecosystems. Further allocations cover spatial planning (US$17.1 million), threatened species and PA expansion (US$19.5 million), sustainable agriculture and marine ecosystems (US$25.8 million each), waste management (US$19.4 million), community access to genetic resources (US$19.4 million), invasive species (US$5.84 million), and the finance gap architecture itself (US$1.18 million) [§132].

Domestic revenue mechanisms include PES schemes across water abstraction, fertiliser pollution, fisheries, fuelwood harvesting, park fees, tourism levies, and carbon taxes [§123, §125]. Subsidy reform — targeting a 50% reduction in harmful subsidies by 2030, including explicit elimination of subsidies for pumping water for qat cultivation — functions simultaneously as a national commitment and a revenue-reallocation mechanism [§125, §150].

International sources identified include the GEF, UNDP, UNEP, World Bank Group, Global Biodiversity Framework Fund (GBFF), Green Climate Fund (GCF), Adaptation Fund, Least Developed Countries Fund (LDCF), Climate Investment Funds (CIF), Forest Investment Program (FIP), REDD+ performance-based payments, OECD bilateral sources (USAID, JICA, GIZ, Norfund), the Islamic Bank, and the Green Middle East Initiative [§132].

Financing gap. The NBSAP explicitly acknowledges that no formal biodiversity financing gap assessment has been conducted for Yemen [§115]. National commitment 17 commits to bridging the gap by 20% by 2030, but the baseline gap figure remains undefined. The document describes the budget figures as indicative and states that "a detailed financing strategy is required" [§132].

Sources:

  • §11 — Executive Summary > Budget and Resource Mobilization
  • §54 — 2.8. Economic Value of Biodiversity in Yemen
  • §115 — Pathway 3 > Equitable Benefit Sharing > Target
  • §123 — Pathway 5 > Output 5.1
  • §125 — Pathway 5 > Subsidy Reform Target
  • §132 — 5.0. NBS Budget and Resource Mobilization
  • §150 — Annex 3: Action Plan (part 2/4)

7. GBF Target Coverage

GBF Target 1: Spatial planning — Addressed

Yemen commits to placing 20% of areas of environmental importance under spatial planning and effective management by 2030, and all land under spatial planning by 2050, with specific provision for green and blue spaces in urban areas. A National Spatial Planning Unit is to be established to oversee a national land use plan policy, with zoning identifying ecologically sensitive zones and compatible land uses developed through a community participatory approach. EIA and SEA are specified as enforcement instruments; remote sensing and NDVI mapping are to monitor land use changes. The indicative budget is US$17.1 million, sourced from domestic public spending, bilateral and multilateral funding, ODA, NGOs, and community groups.

GBF Target 2: Ecosystem restoration — Addressed

Yemen commits to restoring 20% of degraded ecosystems (land, inland waters, coastal marine, wetlands, mangroves, forests) by 2030 and all degraded ecosystems by 2050. Implementation is sequenced from national mapping and classification through plan development to field implementation, with integrated pro-poor livelihoods — apiculture, aquaculture, alternative energy, and Prosopis juliflora conversion — as a co-benefit strategy. Traditional terrace network rehabilitation is named as a nationally distinctive component. Climate-related national commitment 8 targets an additional 15% restoration of degraded ecosystems for carbon absorption. Indicative budget under Pathway 1: US$165.43 million.

GBF Target 3: Protected areas (30x30) — Addressed

Yemen commits to 20% of biodiversity-rich ecosystems under effective and interconnected PAs with community joint management by 2030. Current PA coverage is 0.77% of land area; the BII within existing PAs (0.55) is lower than the national BII (0.87), which the NBSAP attributes to governance collapse under armed conflict conditions. Actions include declaring new PAs under Law 26 of 1995, wildlife corridor identification, ICZM for all coastal areas, and US$11 million for PA institutional capacity building. Both in-situ conservation (habitat restoration, recovery programmes, on-farm conservation) and ex-situ conservation (seed storage, pollen conservation, captive breeding) are specified. GBF Target 3 requires 30% coverage; Yemen commits to 20%.

GBF Target 4: Species recovery — Addressed

Yemen commits to urgent measures to prevent extinction and to listing all endangered species under CITES by 2030. Three species are confirmed extinct in the wild in Yemen: the Cheetah, Arabian Oryx, and Queen of Sheba's Gazelle. Seven mammal species are currently endangered; 8 species (7 from Socotra) are listed in the IUCN Red Data Book; all four marine turtle species in Yemeni waters are IUCN-endangered. The NBSAP acknowledges the absence of time-series population data due to the decade-long armed conflict, beginning the national species survey as the first strategic action. Genetic diversity concerns — crop gene pool erosion linked to uncontrolled Living Modified Organisms — are addressed under this commitment alongside species recovery. Indicative budget for species programmes: US$19.5 million.

GBF Target 5: Sustainable harvest — Addressed

Yemen commits to ensuring harvest rates of all species are at or below maximum sustainable yield by 2030 and reducing illegal species trade by 20% by 2030. Delivery instruments include a fisheries management plan with annual harvest quotas for all fish species, strengthened Ministry of Fish Wealth surveillance, a marine research programme (US$2 million) to establish stock baselines, and a proposed Environmental Police force with deterrent powers (US$3 million). The NBSAP notes a severe deficit in current fish stock scientific data.

GBF Target 6: Invasive alien species — Addressed

Yemen commits to zero new invasive species introductions by 2030, eradication at priority sites, and control elsewhere. Over 21 invasive plant species are documented; Prosopis juliflora is the primary management focus. The NBSAP proposes converting Prosopis into charcoal, livestock feed, and methane cooking gas as a dual-purpose eradication and poverty-alleviation strategy (US$1 million). Border control capacity strengthening (US$1 million) targets prevention at entry points. A national invasive species database, eradication management plan, and monitoring programme are all budgeted. Total indicative budget: US$5.84 million.

GBF Target 7: Pollution reduction — Addressed

Yemen commits to a 20% reduction in agricultural chemicals and pesticides by 2030 and 70% recycling, reuse, and reduction of plastic waste by 2050. The agricultural sector accounts for over 90% of water abstraction nationally; the NBSAP identifies qat production as a major pollution driver, accounting for 30% of agricultural water abstraction and driving heavy pesticide and fertiliser use. Delivery instruments include a single-use plastics ban, wastewater treatment technology transfer (US$5 million), tradable emission permits, and industrial waste management plans. Indicative budget: US$19.4 million.

GBF Target 8: Climate and biodiversity — Addressed

Yemen commits to integrating biodiversity into the NDC for 2025–2030 by restoring at least 15% of degraded ecosystems (wetlands, mangroves, forests, terraces) for increased carbon absorption. The NAP (US$10 million), a sectoral adaptation plan (US$20 million), and NDC revision (US$30 million) are the primary instruments. Blue carbon ecosystem restoration — mangroves and seagrasses — LULUCF emissions reduction, and a low-carbon national strategy are included alongside ecosystem-based adaptation. Indicative budget: US$72.51 million.

GBF Target 9: Wild species use — Mentioned

Yemen does not establish a standalone national commitment on sustainable wild species use for customary benefits of vulnerable populations. National commitment 9 (aligned to GBF 9) commits to managing all ecosystems sustainably to enhance their contribution to economy and livelihoods by 10% by 2030 and 70% by 2050 — addressing ecosystem services broadly. The Action Plan includes restoration activities to enhance ecosystem services in support of community livelihoods and legal framework reform recognising communities as equal management partners, but does not specifically address customary sustainable use or Indigenous and local community practices regarding wild species.

GBF Target 10: Agriculture and forestry — Addressed

Yemen commits to implementing ecosystem-based approaches in all agricultural systems — agriculture, aquaculture, fisheries, and forestry — by 2030. A national sustainable agriculture strategy is the primary instrument. Perverse agricultural subsidies are to be removed and replaced with environmentally sustainable instruments; eco-labelling is promoted as a market mechanism. Terrace network rehabilitation (US$5 million), the Green Middle East Initiative (US$6 million), gene banks for horticultural crops in different agro-ecological zones (US$1 million), and integrated pest management training are named delivery instruments. US$120.17 million for sustainable freshwater management is integrated into this pathway.

GBF Target 11: Ecosystem services (NbS) — Addressed

Yemen commits to restoring 20% of priority degraded ecosystems for ecosystem services and disaster risk reduction by 2030, and to restoring aquatic ecosystems to provide water services to 80% of the population by 2050. The freshwater management budget of US$120.17 million is the single largest outcome allocation in NBSAP III, covering desalination plants in at least four coastal areas (US$45 million), dam construction and reservoirs (US$7 million), a national rainwater harvesting master plan including fog harvesting technologies (US$12 million), and renovation of traditional water storage systems in at least 10 mountainous areas (US$14 million).

GBF Target 12: Urban biodiversity — Addressed

Yemen commits to integrating urban green spaces into urban land use planning by 2030, with connectivity to nearby ecosystems. GALSUP (General Authority of Lands, Survey and Urban Planning) is the named institutional partner. The commitment is situated in the context of rapid urban encroachment into ecologically sensitive areas — mangroves, forests, and wetlands — driven by high population growth, informal settlements, and outdated urban plans. National commitment 1 on spatial planning also explicitly references increasing green and blue spaces in urban and densely populated areas.

GBF Target 13: Genetic resources / ABS — Addressed

Yemen addresses GBF Target 13 through national commitment 13, which also covers GBF Target 14. The strategy commits to engaging communities in ecosystem product value chains and ensuring fair rewards for genetic resource management by 2030, aligned to the Nagoya Protocol. Actions include legislation for equitable benefit sharing (2-year timeline), an NTFP value chain strategy, a national partnership strategy between communities and multinational corporations, and community capacity building for gene-based enterprises through cooperative structures. Indicative budget for genetic resource income: US$5.02 million.

GBF Target 14: Mainstreaming — Addressed

Yemen addresses GBF Target 14 through national commitment 13. The strategy commits to integrating the total economic value of biodiversity into national development plans, poverty reduction plans, and national accounting systems by 2030. The World Bank WAVES framework is specified for natural capital accounting. Periodic ecosystem valuation exercises, a sustainable income account framework, and PES instruments — polluter-pays, park fees, tourism levies, carbon taxes — are identified as mainstreaming mechanisms at institutional and individual levels. The NBSAP identifies mainstreaming across all key economic sectors as the primary mechanism through which NBSAP activities are expected to be implemented.

GBF Target 15: Business disclosure — Mentioned

Yemen does not directly address the GBF's vision of business monitoring, assessment, and disclosure of biodiversity risks and dependencies. National commitment 14 (mapped to GBF 15 in NBSAP Table 7) commits to ensuring all companies disclose genetic resource profits and ecosystem risks, and implement fair benefit-sharing with communities by 2030. This focuses on genetic resource profit disclosure rather than broader supply chain due diligence, biodiversity dependency assessment, or corporate sustainability reporting. No biodiversity risk disclosure framework for businesses beyond genetic resource contexts is specified.

GBF Target 16: Sustainable consumption — Not identified

Content addressing GBF Target 16 was not identified in this NBSAP. The strategy does not establish a national commitment aligned to GBF Target 16. Eco-labelling is mentioned under national commitment 10 in a producer-practice context; it does not constitute a consumer behaviour or food waste commitment.

GBF Target 17: Biosafety — Addressed

Yemen commits to training all relevant stakeholders in biosafety measures by 2030 and strengthening GMO monitoring in line with the Cartagena Protocol, including consumer information provision. The NBSAP does not assign a GBF Target number to this commitment in its own mapping table. The commitment is operationalised within the invasive species pathway, reflecting the linkage between GMO handling and invasive species prevention. The strategy identifies existing gaps: limited biosafety unit capacity within EPA and insufficient quarantine centre infrastructure, attributed to limited financial resources, equipment, expertise, and facilities.

GBF Target 18: Harmful subsidies — Addressed

Yemen commits to halving the monetary value of subsidies harmful to biodiversity by 2030 and promoting environmentally positive incentives for green technologies, ecosystem-based programmes, and clean energy. Cheap diesel and fertiliser subsidies — driving water over-abstraction and unsustainable land use — are specifically named. The elimination of subsidies for pumping water for qat cultivation is explicitly targeted as a specific measure [§150]. Savings are proposed to be reallocated to biodiversity conservation and restoration. Indicative budget for market correction instruments: US$1.22 million.

GBF Target 19: Finance mobilisation — Addressed

Yemen commits to mobilising resources to bridge the biodiversity financing gap by 20% by 2030 and 80% by 2050. The total indicative NBSAP III budget is US$500 million; current annual biodiversity expenditure is approximately US$13 million (less than 1% of national expenditure). International funding historically accounts for approximately 80% of biodiversity financing. An Environmental Protection Fund is proposed as the domestic financing vehicle (US$0.3 million to establish). The NBSAP explicitly acknowledges that no formal gap assessment has been conducted; the baseline for the 20% bridging commitment remains undefined. An extensive portfolio of international funding sources is identified, including the GBFF, GCF, Adaptation Fund, LDCF, REDD+, and multiple OECD bilateral channels.

GBF Target 20: Capacity and technology — Addressed

Yemen addresses GBF Target 20 through national commitment 18, which also covers GBF Target 21. The strategy commits to an adequate scientific base, knowledge transfer, stakeholder technology capacity building, and unrestricted information access by 2030. Specific technologies identified: plant propagation, genetic conservation, GIS, and remote sensing. Traditional knowledge documentation is a named strategic action. Capacity building explicitly includes women, youth, people with special needs, and children. Partnerships with local and international research institutions are to be established for joint biodiversity research.

GBF Target 21: Data and information — Addressed

Yemen addresses GBF Target 21 through national commitment 18, which also covers GBF Target 20. The strategy commits to unrestricted information and technology access for all stakeholders by 2030. EPA is to establish a central data storage facility accessible to all stakeholders, with the national biosafety database and CHM receiving periodic updates. The NBSAP acknowledges a critical data gap attributable to the decade-long armed conflict: no time-series species population data, no comprehensive IUCN classification, and no dedicated information database currently exists. An independent audit body under the Ministry of Finance is to verify M&E reports for transparency. The M&E reporting cycle — quarterly and annual reports, mid-term evaluation, and terminal evaluation in 2029 — is the primary data production framework.

GBF Target 22: Inclusive participation — Addressed

Yemen addresses GBF Target 22 through national commitment 19, which also covers GBF Target 23. The strategy commits to fair and reasonable representation of women, youth, and vulnerable groups in biodiversity management bodies by 2030, adopting an all-of-Government, all-of-society approach. Legal framework reform to recognise communities as equal partners in natural resource management is specified on a 6-month timeline. Vulnerable Groups Associations (VGA — women and children) are listed as institutional partners in the Action Plan. Community co-management of PAs is a core governance model throughout the NBSAP.

GBF Target 23: Gender equality — Addressed

Yemen addresses GBF Target 23 through national commitment 19, which also covers GBF Target 22. The strategy adopts a gender-responsive approach to ensure effective participation of women, vulnerable groups, and youth across all levels of environmental decision-making by 2030. Capacity building actions specifically targeting women and youth in scientific research appear under Pathway 4. No standalone gender action plan or gender-disaggregated quantitative targets are included in the NBSAP.